Abstract
The occurrence, abundance and distribution of bacteria (nitrifying, nitrogen-fixing and heterotrophic), yeasts, moulds, algae and actinomycetes in mangrove and freshwater swamps were studied. Microbial abundance and diversity were greater in freshwater than in mangrove swamps. Actinomycetes were the dominant organisms in sediments while algae occurred widely in water. A total of 57 microbial genera were isolated from the mangrove swamp, out of which the algae had greatest diversity comprising 20 genera. It was followed by the moulds, which had 16 genera, then bacteria (10 genera), yeast (6 genera) and actinomycetes (5 genera). The organisms were widely distributed in all parts of the swamp, though actinomycetes did not occur in the water samples and yeasts occurred sparsely in freshwater. The study implicates the genera Aeromonas, Proteus, Serratia and Citrobacter (bacteria); Thermoactinomyces and Streptomyces (actinomycetes); Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Penicillium, Mucor, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Verticillium and Botrytis (moulds); Rhodospiridium, Trigonopsis and Pichia (yeasts); Gomphonema, Fischerella, Asterionella, Borgea, Nostoc, Chlamydomonas, Laminaria, Spirulina, Chlorobotrys and Vaucheria (algae) as autochthonous members of the mangrove swamps of the Niger delta. Mangrove swamps therefore harbour a wide range of microorganisms some of which are indigenous to this slightly acidic habitat and occur in varying proportions.
References
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Alongi DM., Boto KG and Robertson AI. 1992. Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles. In Robertson A.I. & Alongi D.M. (eds.) Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. American Geophysical Union, Washington D.C., 251-292.
Alongi DM., Christoffersen P and Tirendi F. 1993. The influence of forest type on microbial-nutrient relationships in tropical mangrove sediments. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 171:201-223.
Anzai K, Nakashima T, Kuwahara N, Suzuki R, Ohfuku Y, Takeshita S and Ando K. 2008. Actinomycete bacteria isolated from the sediments at coastal and offshore area of Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan: Diversity and Biological Activity. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 106(2):215-217.
APHA. 1985. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. I6th Edition. American Public Health Association, Washington. DC.
Araujo FS, Soares CAG, Hagler AN and Mendonca-Hagler LC. 1995. Ascomycetous yeast communities of marine invertebrates in a Southeastern Brazilian mangrove ecosystem. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 68(2):91-99.
Austin B. 1988. Marine Microbiology. Cambridge University Press, London.
Benka-Coker MO and Olumagin A. 1995. Waste drilling fluid-utilising microorganisms in a tropical mangrove swamp oilfield location. Bioresource Technology 53:211-215.
Chindah AC. 1988. Plankton Studies. In: Environmental Impact Assessment of the Eleme Petrochemical Complex Technical Report TR/87/03. 88 pp. University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Chindah AC and Pudo J. 1991. A preliminary checklist of algae found in plankton of Bonny river in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Fragmenta Floristica et Geobotanica 36(1):112-116.
Colwell RR and Zambruski MS. 1972. Methods in Aquatic Microbiology. University Park Press. Baltimore., 1-461.
Deft MJ. 1988. Cyanobacteria: Isolation, Interactions and Ecology. In: Methods in Aquatic Microbiology. Austin B. (ed.), John Wiley and Sons. New York, 224 -268.
Environmatics (A.E.C.) Limited. 1995. Environmental Study to Determine the Impacts of Exploration and Production (E&P) Activities on Mangrove Ecosystems. Report submitted to SPDC, Port Harcourt, 255.
Essien JP and Ubom RM. 2003. Epipellic algae profile of the mixohaline swamp of Qua Iboe river estuary (Nigeria). The Environmentalist 23:323- 328.
Essien JP, Antai SP and Benson NU. 2008. Microalgae biodiversity and biomass status in Qua Iboe estuary mangrove swamp, Nigeria. Aquatic Ecology 42:71-81.
Fell JW, Master IM and Newell SY. 1980. Laboratory model of the potential role of fungi in the decomposition of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) leaf litter. In: Tenore, K. R. & Coull, B. C. (eds.) Marine Benthic Dynamics, University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, 359.
Fritsch FF. 1975. The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae. Vol. 1. The Williams and Wilkins Company, Baltimore.
Goodfellow M and Williams ST. 1983. Ecology of actinomycetes. Annual Review of Microbiology 37:189-216.
Holguin G, Vazquez P and Bashan Y. 2001. The role of sediment microorganisms in the productivity, conservation, and rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems: an overview. Biology and Fertility of Soils 33:265-278.
Holt JG, Krieg NR, Sneath PHA, Staley JT, Williams ST. 1994. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed. Williams,Wilkins. Baltimore.
Hunter BB and Bennett HL. 1973. Deutromycetes (Fungi Imperfecti) In: Laskin A.I. and Lechavalier (eds.), CRC Handbook of Microbiology Vol. 1. CRC Press. Cleveland Ohio, 405-433.
Ihejirika CE, Ogbulie JN, Nwabueze RN, Orji JC, Ihejirika OC, Adieze IE, Azubike OC and Ibe IJ. 2011. Seasonal Influences on the Distribution of Bacterial Pathogens and Waterborne Diseases Transmission Potentials of Imo River, Nigeria. Journal of Research in Biology 3:163 -172.
Imevbore AMA. 1983. The investigation of faecal pollution in the surface water of the Niger Delta of Nigeria. Final Report Niger Delta Basin Development Authority 3:4 -94.
Jensen PR, Dwight R and Fenical W. 1991. Distribution of actinomycetes in near-shore tropical marine sediment. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 57:1102-1108.
Kathiresan K. 2000. A review of studies on Pichavaram mangrove, southeast India. Hydrobiologia 430:185-205.
Kathiresan K, Bingham BL. 2001. Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology 40:81-251.
Kinako PDS. 1977. Conserving the mangrove forest of the Niger Delta. Biological Conservation 11:35-39.
Kobayashi H and Rittman BE. 1982. Microbial removal of hazardous organic compounds. Environmental Science and Technology 19(3):470-481A.
Krieg NR. 1981. Enrichment and isolation. In: Manual of Methods for General Bacteriology. American Society for Microbiology, Washington D.C., 112-142.
Krieg NR and Holt JG. 1984. Bergey’s Manual of Systemic Bacteriology. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore
Krotzky A and Werner D. 1987. Nitrogen fixation in Pseudomonas stutzeri. Archives of Microbiology 147:48-57.
Kumar S, Hatha AAM. and Christi KS. 2007. Diversity and effectiveness of tropical mangrove soil microflora on the degradation of polythene carry bags. Revista de Biologia Tropical (International Journal of Tropical Biology and Conservation) 55(3-4):777-786.
Larone DH. 1976. Medically Important Fungi. A Guide to Identification. Harper and Row, Hagerstown, ND. 3-25.
Laskin AI and Lechevelier HA. 1977. CRC Handbook of Microbiology Vol. 2. Second Edition, CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida.
Lynch JM. and Whipps JM. 1990. Substrate flow in the rhizosphere. Plant and Soil 129:1-10.
Mahamed-Salique S, Krishnamurthy K and Palaniappan R. 1985. Ecology of fungal population in the Vellar estuary and Pichavaram mangrove, southeast India. In Leela J. Bhodsale (ed.). The Mangroves. Shivaji Univesity, Kolhapur, 153-162.
Mehdi FS and Saifullah SM. 1992. Mangrove fungi of Karachi, Pakistan. Journal of Islamic Academy of Science 5(1):24-27.
Mincer TJ, Jensen PR, Kauffman CA and Fenical W. 2002. Widespread and persistent populations of a major new marine actinomycete taxon in the ocean sediments. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68:5005-5011.
Nedwell DB, Blackburn TH and Wiebe WJ. 1994. Dynamic nature of the turnover of organic carbon, nitrogen and sulphur in the sediments of a Jamaican mangrove forest: Marine Ecology Progress Series 110:223-231.
Nolan RD and Cross T. 1988. Isolation and screening of actinomycetes. In: Actinomycetes in Biotechnology. Goodfellow. M., Williams, S. T. & Mordarski, M. (eds.). Academic Press, Inc., San Diego 1-32.
Nweke CO and Orji JC. 2009. Toxicity of Heavy Metals to Microbial Community of New Calabar River. Nigerian Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 24(1):48-54
Obire O, Tamuno DC and Wemedo SA. 2003. Physico-chemical quality of Elechi Creek in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management 7(1):43-49.
Obire O, Tamuno DC and Wemedo SA. 2005. Bacteriological water quality of Elechi Creek in Port harcourt, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management 9(1):79-84.
Odokuma LO and Okpokwasili GC. 1993. Seasonal and ecology of hydrocarbon utilizing microbes in the surface waters of a river. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 27:175-191.
Okami Y and Okazaki T. 1978. Actinomycetes in marine environments. In: Nocardia and Streptomyces. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Nocardia and Streptomyces,
Onofeghara FA. 1990. Wetlands, their distribution and potential. In: Akpara T.V.I and Okali D.U.U. (eds.), Nigerian Wetlands pp 14-26. Man and the Biosphere National committee, Ibadan.
Opute FI. 1990. Phytoplankton flora of the Warri-Forcados estuaries of southern Nigeria. Hydrobiologia 208:101-109.
Opute FI. 1991. A check list of marine phytoplankton. Nigerian Journal of Botany 4:227-254.
Purushothaman A and Jayalakshmi S. 2012. http://ocw.unu.edu/international-network-on-water-environment-and-health/unu-inweh-course-1-mangroves/Bacteria-and-fungi.pdf. Retrieved May 7.
Ravikumar S. 1995. Nitrogen fixing azotobacters from the mangrove habitat and their utility as biofertilizers. Ph.D. Thesis, Annamalai University, Parangipettai, India. 102.
Rublee PA. 1982. Bacteria and microbial distribution in estuarine sediments. In: Kenedy V.S. (ed.), Estuarine Comparisons. Academic Press, New York, 159-182.
Sahoo K and Dhal NK. 2009. Potential microbial diversity in mangrove ecosystems: A review. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 38(2):249-256.
Samson RA, Hoekstra ES and Van Oorschot CAN. 1984. Introduction to Food-Borne Fungi. 2nd Edition. Centrilbureau voor Schimmelcultures
Sathiyamurthy K, Rajendran RB, Purushothaman A and Ramaiyan V. 1990. Heterotrophic bacteria from mangroves. Indian Journal of Microbiology 30:337-341.
Sengupta A and Chaudhuri S. 1990. Halotolerant Rhizobium strains from mangrove swamps of the Ganges River Delta. Indian Journal of Microbiology 30:483-484.
Sengupta A and Chaudhuri S. 1991. Ecology of heterotrophic dinitrogen fixation in the rhizosphere of mangrove plant community at the Ganges River estuary in India. Oecologia 87:560-564.
Sherman RE, Fahey TJ and Howarth RW 1998. Soil-plant interactions in a neotropical mangrove forest: iron, phosphates and sulfur dynamics. Oecologia 115:553-563.
Shingadia HU. 2011. Microbial diversity in marine edible fish Harpodon nehereus (Ham-Buch) from neretic waters of Mumbai Coast, India. Journal of Research in Microbes 1:6-10.
Smibert RM and Krieg NR. 1981. General characterization. In: Manual of Methods for General Bacteriology. American Society for Microbiology, Washington D.C. 112-142.
Takizawa M, Colwell RR and Hill RT. 1993. Isolation and diversity of actinomycetes in Chesapeake Bay. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59:997-1002.
Thibodeau FR and Nickerson NH. 1986. Differential oxidation of mangrove substrate by Avicennia germinans and Rhizophora mangle. American Journal of Botany 73:512-516.
Ubom RM and Essien JP. 2003. Distribution and significance of epipsammic algae in the coastal shore (Ibeno Beach) of Qua Iboe river estuary, Nigeria. The Environmentalist 23:109-115.
Udotong IR, Eduok SI, Essien JP and Ita BN. 2008. Density of Hydrocarbonoclastic Bacteria and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Accumulation in Iko River Mangrove Ecosystem, Nigeria. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 44:830-836.
Vazquez P, Holquin G, Puente ME,Lopez-Cortes A and Bashan Y. 2000. Phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms associated with the rhizosphere of mangroves in a semiarid coastal lagoon. Biology and Fertility of Soils 30:460-468.
Venkatesan T and Natarajan R. 1986. Intertidal mycoflora of Pichvaram mangroves near Porto Novo. In Leela J. Bhodsale (ed.). The Mangroves. Shivaji Univesity, Kolhapur, 163-169.
Watson ET and Williams ST. 1974. Studies on the ecology of actinomycetes in soil. VII: Actinomycetes in coastal sand belt. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 6:43-52.
Weyland H. 1969. Actinomycetes in North Sea and Atlantic Ocean sediments. Nature (London) 223:858.
Yakubu AF, Sikoki FD and Horsefall Jr M. 1998. An investigation into the physico-chemical conditions and planktonic organisms of the lower reaches of the Nun River, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management 1(1): 38-42.
Alongi DM., Boto KG and Robertson AI. 1992. Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles. In Robertson A.I. & Alongi D.M. (eds.) Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. American Geophysical Union, Washington D.C., 251-292.
Alongi DM., Christoffersen P and Tirendi F. 1993. The influence of forest type on microbial-nutrient relationships in tropical mangrove sediments. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 171:201-223.
Anzai K, Nakashima T, Kuwahara N, Suzuki R, Ohfuku Y, Takeshita S and Ando K. 2008. Actinomycete bacteria isolated from the sediments at coastal and offshore area of Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan: Diversity and Biological Activity. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 106(2):215-217.
APHA. 1985. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. I6th Edition. American Public Health Association, Washington. DC.
Araujo FS, Soares CAG, Hagler AN and Mendonca-Hagler LC. 1995. Ascomycetous yeast communities of marine invertebrates in a Southeastern Brazilian mangrove ecosystem. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 68(2):91-99.
Austin B. 1988. Marine Microbiology. Cambridge University Press, London.
Benka-Coker MO and Olumagin A. 1995. Waste drilling fluid-utilising microorganisms in a tropical mangrove swamp oilfield location. Bioresource Technology 53:211-215.
Chindah AC. 1988. Plankton Studies. In: Environmental Impact Assessment of the Eleme Petrochemical Complex Technical Report TR/87/03. 88 pp. University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Chindah AC and Pudo J. 1991. A preliminary checklist of algae found in plankton of Bonny river in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Fragmenta Floristica et Geobotanica 36(1):112-116.
Colwell RR and Zambruski MS. 1972. Methods in Aquatic Microbiology. University Park Press. Baltimore., 1-461.
Deft MJ. 1988. Cyanobacteria: Isolation, Interactions and Ecology. In: Methods in Aquatic Microbiology. Austin B. (ed.), John Wiley and Sons. New York, 224 -268.
Environmatics (A.E.C.) Limited. 1995. Environmental Study to Determine the Impacts of Exploration and Production (E&P) Activities on Mangrove Ecosystems. Report submitted to SPDC, Port Harcourt, 255.
Essien JP and Ubom RM. 2003. Epipellic algae profile of the mixohaline swamp of Qua Iboe river estuary (Nigeria). The Environmentalist 23:323- 328.
Essien JP, Antai SP and Benson NU. 2008. Microalgae biodiversity and biomass status in Qua Iboe estuary mangrove swamp, Nigeria. Aquatic Ecology 42:71-81.
Fell JW, Master IM and Newell SY. 1980. Laboratory model of the potential role of fungi in the decomposition of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) leaf litter. In: Tenore, K. R. & Coull, B. C. (eds.) Marine Benthic Dynamics, University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, 359.
Fritsch FF. 1975. The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae. Vol. 1. The Williams and Wilkins Company, Baltimore.
Goodfellow M and Williams ST. 1983. Ecology of actinomycetes. Annual Review of Microbiology 37:189-216.
Holguin G, Vazquez P and Bashan Y. 2001. The role of sediment microorganisms in the productivity, conservation, and rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems: an overview. Biology and Fertility of Soils 33:265-278.
Holt JG, Krieg NR, Sneath PHA, Staley JT, Williams ST. 1994. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed. Williams,Wilkins. Baltimore.
Hunter BB and Bennett HL. 1973. Deutromycetes (Fungi Imperfecti) In: Laskin A.I. and Lechavalier (eds.), CRC Handbook of Microbiology Vol. 1. CRC Press. Cleveland Ohio, 405-433.
Ihejirika CE, Ogbulie JN, Nwabueze RN, Orji JC, Ihejirika OC, Adieze IE, Azubike OC and Ibe IJ. 2011. Seasonal Influences on the Distribution of Bacterial Pathogens and Waterborne Diseases Transmission Potentials of Imo River, Nigeria. Journal of Research in Biology 3:163 -172.
Imevbore AMA. 1983. The investigation of faecal pollution in the surface water of the Niger Delta of Nigeria. Final Report Niger Delta Basin Development Authority 3:4 -94.
Jensen PR, Dwight R and Fenical W. 1991. Distribution of actinomycetes in near-shore tropical marine sediment. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 57:1102-1108.
Kathiresan K. 2000. A review of studies on Pichavaram mangrove, southeast India. Hydrobiologia 430:185-205.
Kathiresan K, Bingham BL. 2001. Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology 40:81-251.
Kinako PDS. 1977. Conserving the mangrove forest of the Niger Delta. Biological Conservation 11:35-39.
Kobayashi H and Rittman BE. 1982. Microbial removal of hazardous organic compounds. Environmental Science and Technology 19(3):470-481A.
Krieg NR. 1981. Enrichment and isolation. In: Manual of Methods for General Bacteriology. American Society for Microbiology, Washington D.C., 112-142.
Krieg NR and Holt JG. 1984. Bergey’s Manual of Systemic Bacteriology. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore
Krotzky A and Werner D. 1987. Nitrogen fixation in Pseudomonas stutzeri. Archives of Microbiology 147:48-57.
Kumar S, Hatha AAM. and Christi KS. 2007. Diversity and effectiveness of tropical mangrove soil microflora on the degradation of polythene carry bags. Revista de Biologia Tropical (International Journal of Tropical Biology and Conservation) 55(3-4):777-786.
Larone DH. 1976. Medically Important Fungi. A Guide to Identification. Harper and Row, Hagerstown, ND. 3-25.
Laskin AI and Lechevelier HA. 1977. CRC Handbook of Microbiology Vol. 2. Second Edition, CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida.
Lynch JM. and Whipps JM. 1990. Substrate flow in the rhizosphere. Plant and Soil 129:1-10.
Mahamed-Salique S, Krishnamurthy K and Palaniappan R. 1985. Ecology of fungal population in the Vellar estuary and Pichavaram mangrove, southeast India. In Leela J. Bhodsale (ed.). The Mangroves. Shivaji Univesity, Kolhapur, 153-162.
Mehdi FS and Saifullah SM. 1992. Mangrove fungi of Karachi, Pakistan. Journal of Islamic Academy of Science 5(1):24-27.
Mincer TJ, Jensen PR, Kauffman CA and Fenical W. 2002. Widespread and persistent populations of a major new marine actinomycete taxon in the ocean sediments. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68:5005-5011.
Nedwell DB, Blackburn TH and Wiebe WJ. 1994. Dynamic nature of the turnover of organic carbon, nitrogen and sulphur in the sediments of a Jamaican mangrove forest: Marine Ecology Progress Series 110:223-231.
Nolan RD and Cross T. 1988. Isolation and screening of actinomycetes. In: Actinomycetes in Biotechnology. Goodfellow. M., Williams, S. T. & Mordarski, M. (eds.). Academic Press, Inc., San Diego 1-32.
Nweke CO and Orji JC. 2009. Toxicity of Heavy Metals to Microbial Community of New Calabar River. Nigerian Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 24(1):48-54
Obire O, Tamuno DC and Wemedo SA. 2003. Physico-chemical quality of Elechi Creek in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management 7(1):43-49.
Obire O, Tamuno DC and Wemedo SA. 2005. Bacteriological water quality of Elechi Creek in Port harcourt, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management 9(1):79-84.
Odokuma LO and Okpokwasili GC. 1993. Seasonal and ecology of hydrocarbon utilizing microbes in the surface waters of a river. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 27:175-191.
Okami Y and Okazaki T. 1978. Actinomycetes in marine environments. In: Nocardia and Streptomyces. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Nocardia and Streptomyces,
Onofeghara FA. 1990. Wetlands, their distribution and potential. In: Akpara T.V.I and Okali D.U.U. (eds.), Nigerian Wetlands pp 14-26. Man and the Biosphere National committee, Ibadan.
Opute FI. 1990. Phytoplankton flora of the Warri-Forcados estuaries of southern Nigeria. Hydrobiologia 208:101-109.
Opute FI. 1991. A check list of marine phytoplankton. Nigerian Journal of Botany 4:227-254.
Purushothaman A and Jayalakshmi S. 2012. http://ocw.unu.edu/international-network-on-water-environment-and-health/unu-inweh-course-1-mangroves/Bacteria-and-fungi.pdf. Retrieved May 7.
Ravikumar S. 1995. Nitrogen fixing azotobacters from the mangrove habitat and their utility as biofertilizers. Ph.D. Thesis, Annamalai University, Parangipettai, India. 102.
Rublee PA. 1982. Bacteria and microbial distribution in estuarine sediments. In: Kenedy V.S. (ed.), Estuarine Comparisons. Academic Press, New York, 159-182.
Sahoo K and Dhal NK. 2009. Potential microbial diversity in mangrove ecosystems: A review. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 38(2):249-256.
Samson RA, Hoekstra ES and Van Oorschot CAN. 1984. Introduction to Food-Borne Fungi. 2nd Edition. Centrilbureau voor Schimmelcultures
Sathiyamurthy K, Rajendran RB, Purushothaman A and Ramaiyan V. 1990. Heterotrophic bacteria from mangroves. Indian Journal of Microbiology 30:337-341.
Sengupta A and Chaudhuri S. 1990. Halotolerant Rhizobium strains from mangrove swamps of the Ganges River Delta. Indian Journal of Microbiology 30:483-484.
Sengupta A and Chaudhuri S. 1991. Ecology of heterotrophic dinitrogen fixation in the rhizosphere of mangrove plant community at the Ganges River estuary in India. Oecologia 87:560-564.
Sherman RE, Fahey TJ and Howarth RW 1998. Soil-plant interactions in a neotropical mangrove forest: iron, phosphates and sulfur dynamics. Oecologia 115:553-563.
Shingadia HU. 2011. Microbial diversity in marine edible fish Harpodon nehereus (Ham-Buch) from neretic waters of Mumbai Coast, India. Journal of Research in Microbes 1:6-10.
Smibert RM and Krieg NR. 1981. General characterization. In: Manual of Methods for General Bacteriology. American Society for Microbiology, Washington D.C. 112-142.
Takizawa M, Colwell RR and Hill RT. 1993. Isolation and diversity of actinomycetes in Chesapeake Bay. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59:997-1002.
Thibodeau FR and Nickerson NH. 1986. Differential oxidation of mangrove substrate by Avicennia germinans and Rhizophora mangle. American Journal of Botany 73:512-516.
Ubom RM and Essien JP. 2003. Distribution and significance of epipsammic algae in the coastal shore (Ibeno Beach) of Qua Iboe river estuary, Nigeria. The Environmentalist 23:109-115.
Udotong IR, Eduok SI, Essien JP and Ita BN. 2008. Density of Hydrocarbonoclastic Bacteria and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Accumulation in Iko River Mangrove Ecosystem, Nigeria. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 44:830-836.
Vazquez P, Holquin G, Puente ME,Lopez-Cortes A and Bashan Y. 2000. Phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms associated with the rhizosphere of mangroves in a semiarid coastal lagoon. Biology and Fertility of Soils 30:460-468.
Venkatesan T and Natarajan R. 1986. Intertidal mycoflora of Pichvaram mangroves near Porto Novo. In Leela J. Bhodsale (ed.). The Mangroves. Shivaji Univesity, Kolhapur, 163-169.
Watson ET and Williams ST. 1974. Studies on the ecology of actinomycetes in soil. VII: Actinomycetes in coastal sand belt. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 6:43-52.
Weyland H. 1969. Actinomycetes in North Sea and Atlantic Ocean sediments. Nature (London) 223:858.
Yakubu AF, Sikoki FD and Horsefall Jr M. 1998. An investigation into the physico-chemical conditions and planktonic organisms of the lower reaches of the Nun River, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management 1(1): 38-42.
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