Drug resistance: a social perspective
Keywords:
Drug resistance, Antimicrobials, Medications
Abstract
Drug resistance is a defensive strategy developed by the microorganisms to evade the detrimental effects of antimicrobial agents. Over the years microorganisms have successfully counteracted the action of antimicrobials using both genetic methods such as random mutations, chromosomal or plasmid mediated transfer of genetic information and biochemical mechanisms like decreased permeability of the organism to the drug, inactivation of the inhibitor by enzyme produced by the resistant organism, modification of the properties of the drug receptor site, increased synthesis of an essential metabolite antagonistic for the drug. However, the human governed factors viz. faulty prescriptions, misdiagnosis, self medication, incomplete medication, reservation for antibiotic sensitivity tests, supplementation of antibiotics in cattle feed and toiletries seem to have taught and prompted the microorganisms, the so called miniature industries, to gear up to develop antibiotic resistant mechanisms. As a consequence, multi-drug resistant strains have posed a challenge to the humanity. The costly inputs and hardships of scientists in the laboratories unravel the mysteries and present a valuable product and technologies for human well being. However, the judicious use of the process, product or technology remains the joint responsibility of common masses, technocrats and the government. Thus, our roles to curb the factors that lead to drug resistance need to be given key priority. The approach could shun the burden of scientists and open new and well executed front to fight the nuisance of drug resistance.
References
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Grigoryan L. 2007. Is self-medication with antibiotics in Europe driven by prescribed use? J Antimicrob Chemother. 59(1):152-156.
Handsfield HH, Sandstorm EG, Knapp JS. 1982. Epidemiology of penicillin producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection. N Engl J Med., 306:950.
Handwerger S and Tomasz A. Alterations in penicillin-binding proteins of clinical and laboratory isolates of pathogenic Streptococcus pneumoniae with low levels of penicillin resistance. J Infect Dis.,153:83.
Hawkey PM. 1984. Providencia stuartii: A review of multiply antibiotic resistant bacterium. J Antimicrob Chemother.13:209.
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Jabes D, Nachman S, Tomasz A. 1989. Penicillin binding protein families: Evidence for clonal nature of penicillin resistance in clinical isolates of pneumococci. J Infect Dis.,159:16.
Jabra-Rizk MA, Meiller TF, James CE and Shirtliff ME. 2006. Effect of farnesol on Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation and antimicrobial susceptibility. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 50:1463-69.
Jain RF. 1996. Faulty prescription--an avoidable cause of multidrug resistance tuberculosis. J. Indian Med Assoc., 94(10):385-88.
Koornhof WJ. 1980. Antibiotic resistant pneumococci. In: Remington JS, Swartz MN (eds). Current Clinical Topics in Infectious Diseases. New York, Mc Graw Hill. 1:265-287.
Lacey RW. 1975. Antibiotic resistance plasmids of Staphylococcus aureus and their clinical importance. Bacteriol Rev., 39:1.
Little TWA, Sojka WJ and Wray C. 1986. Consequences on emergence of resistant bacteria from the use of antibacterials in animal husbandary. Scand J Infect Dis., 49:124.
Nalini GK. 2010. Self-medication among allopathic medical doctors in Karnataka, India. BJMP. 3(2):325.
Overturf GD, Wilkins J, Ressler R. 1974. Emergence of resistance of Providencia stuartii to multiple antibiotics: Speciation and biochemical characteristics of Providencia. J Infect Dis., 129:353.
Peacock JE, Moorman DR, Wenzel RP. 1981. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Microbiologic characteristics, antimicrobial susceptibilities and assessment of virulence of an epidemic strain. J Infect Dis., 144:575.
Pond WG, Church DC, Pond KR, Schoknecht PA. 2005. Feedstuffs. In: Basic Animal Nutrition and Feeding. John Wiley & sons Inc.
Poole K. 2001. Multidrug Efflux Pumps and Antimicrobial Resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Related Organisms. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol., 3(2):255-264.
Raghunath D. 2008. Emerging antibiotic resistance in bacteria with special reference to India. J Biosci., 33:593–603.
Rasoloson D, Vanacova S, Tomkova E, Razga A, Hrdy A, Tachezy J and Kulda J. 2002. Mechanisms of in vitro development of resistance to metronidazole in Trichomonas vaginalis. Microbiology. 148:2467-2477.
Russell AD. 2002. Antibiotic and biocide resistance in bacteria: comments and conclusion. J Appl Microbiol., 92(Suppl):171-173.
Saravoltz LD, Markowitz N, Arking L. 1982. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Epidemiologic observations during a community acquired outbreak. Ann Intern Med., 96:11.
Sheehy RJ and Novick RP. 1975. Penicillinase plasmid replication in Staphylococcus aureus. In: Schlessinger D (ed). Microbiology. Washington DC: American Society of Microbiology. 130.
Suci PA, Mittelman MW, Yu FP and Geesey GG. 1994. Investigation of ciprofloxacin penetration into Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 38:2125-33.
Tomasz A. 1990. New and complex strategies of beta- lactam antibiotic resistance in pneumococci and staphylococci. In: Ayoub EM, Cassell, GH, Branche, WC Jr., Henry, TJ (eds). Microbial determinants of virulence and host response. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology.345.
Tresse O, Jouenne T, and Junter GA. 1995. The role of oxygen limitation in the resistance of agar-entrapped, sessile-like Escherichia coli to aminoglycoside and ß-lactam antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother. 36:521-26.
Varaiya A and Gogate A. 1998. Drug resistance to the 1st line of antitubercular regimen (A preliminary report). Ind J Pub Health. 42(4):126-130.
Warren JW. 1986. Providencia stuartii: A common cause of antibiotic resistant bacteremia in patients with long term indwelling catheters. Rev Infect Dis., 8:61.
Weinstein RA, Kabins SA, Nathan C. 1982. Gentamycin resistant staphylococci as hospital flora: Epidemiology and resistance plasmids. J Infect Dis., 145:374.
Willey JM, Sherwood LM and Woolverton CJ. 2007. Antimicrobial chemotherapy. In: Prescott, Harley and Klein’s Microbiology. 7th Ed. McGraw Hill Companies, Inc. New York. 850.
Aires JR, Köhler T, Nikaido H and Plesiat P. 1999. Involvement of an active efflux system in the natural resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to aminoglycosides. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 43:2624-2628.
Akkerman AE, Kuyvenhoven MM, Van derWouden JC, Verheij TJ. 2005. Analysis of under- and over prescribing of antibiotics in acute otitis media in general practice. J Antimicrob Chemother.56:569-574.
Archer GL, Dietrick DR, Johnston JL. 1985. Molecular epidemiology of transmissible gentamicin resistance among coagulase-negative staphylococci in a cardiac surgery unit. J Infect Dis., 151:243.
Aronoff SC. 1989. The emergence of betalactam resistance among strains of Enterobacter cloacae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Pediatr Infect Dis., J 8 (9):S100.
Bamber AI, Neal TJ. 1999. An assessment of triclosan susceptibility in methicillin resistant and methicillin sensitive Staphylococcus aureus. J Hosp Infect., 41:107-109.
Brunton J, Clare D, Meir MA. 1986. Molecular epidemiology of antibiotic resistance plasmids to Haemophilus species and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Rev Infect Dis., 8:713.
Chakraborty P. 1996. Antimicrobial therapy In: Chakraborty P (ed). A text book of Microbiology. New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd. Calcutta. India; 83.
Chalker J. 2001. Improving antibiotic prescribing in HaiPhong province, Vietnam: The Antibiotic- Dose" Indicator Bull W HO.79(4):313-320.
Cohen ML and Tauxe RV. 1986. Drug resistant Salmonella in the United States: An epidemiologic perspective. Science. 234:964.
Cohen SP, Levy SB, Foulds J and Rosner JL. 1993. Salicylate induction of antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli: Activation of the mar Operon and a mar-Independent Pathway. J Bacteriol.,175(24):7856-7862.
Craven DE, Rixinger AJ, Goularte TA. 1986. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia linked to intravenous drug abusers using a “shooting gallery”. Am J Med;80:772.
Cromwell GL. 2005. Antimicrobial and promicrobial agents. In: Swine Nutrition, 2nd edition. A.J. Lewis and L.L. Southern (eds). CRC Press, Boca. Raton, FL. 31. Hay, VW. Antibiotics: sub-therapeutic levels. In: Encyclopedia of Animal Science. W. G. Pond and A.W. Bell (eds). Marcel Dekker, New York.
Crossley K, Landesman B and Zaske D. 1979. An outbreak of infections caused by strains of Staphylococcus aureus resistant to methicillin and aminoglycosides II. Epidemiologic studies. J Infect Dis., 139:280.
Dowson CG, Huchinson A, Brannigan, JA. 1989. Horizontal transfer of penicillin binding protein genes in penicillin resistant clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 86:8842.
DuGuid IG, Evans E, Brown MRW and Gilbert P. 1990. Growth-rate-dependent killing by ciprofloxacin of biofilm-derived Staphylococcus epidermidis; evidence for cell-cycle dependency. J Antimicrob Chemother. 30:791-802.
Elwell LP, Roberts M, Falkow S. 1978. Common beta- lactamase-specifying R plasmid isolated from genera Haemophilus and Neisseria. In: Schlessinger D (ed). Microbiology. 255.
Evans DJ, Allison DG, Brown MRW and Gilbert P. 1990. Effect of growth-rate on resistance of gram-negative biofilms to cetrimide. J Antimicrob Chemother. 26:473-478.
Grigoryan L. 2007. Is self-medication with antibiotics in Europe driven by prescribed use? J Antimicrob Chemother. 59(1):152-156.
Handsfield HH, Sandstorm EG, Knapp JS. 1982. Epidemiology of penicillin producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection. N Engl J Med., 306:950.
Handwerger S and Tomasz A. Alterations in penicillin-binding proteins of clinical and laboratory isolates of pathogenic Streptococcus pneumoniae with low levels of penicillin resistance. J Infect Dis.,153:83.
Hawkey PM. 1984. Providencia stuartii: A review of multiply antibiotic resistant bacterium. J Antimicrob Chemother.13:209.
Henderson FW, Gilligan PH, Wait K, Goff DA. 1988. Nasopharyngeal carriage of antibiotic resistant pneumococci by children in group day care. J Infect Dis.,157:256.
Jabes D, Nachman S, Tomasz A. 1989. Penicillin binding protein families: Evidence for clonal nature of penicillin resistance in clinical isolates of pneumococci. J Infect Dis.,159:16.
Jabra-Rizk MA, Meiller TF, James CE and Shirtliff ME. 2006. Effect of farnesol on Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation and antimicrobial susceptibility. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 50:1463-69.
Jain RF. 1996. Faulty prescription--an avoidable cause of multidrug resistance tuberculosis. J. Indian Med Assoc., 94(10):385-88.
Koornhof WJ. 1980. Antibiotic resistant pneumococci. In: Remington JS, Swartz MN (eds). Current Clinical Topics in Infectious Diseases. New York, Mc Graw Hill. 1:265-287.
Lacey RW. 1975. Antibiotic resistance plasmids of Staphylococcus aureus and their clinical importance. Bacteriol Rev., 39:1.
Little TWA, Sojka WJ and Wray C. 1986. Consequences on emergence of resistant bacteria from the use of antibacterials in animal husbandary. Scand J Infect Dis., 49:124.
Nalini GK. 2010. Self-medication among allopathic medical doctors in Karnataka, India. BJMP. 3(2):325.
Overturf GD, Wilkins J, Ressler R. 1974. Emergence of resistance of Providencia stuartii to multiple antibiotics: Speciation and biochemical characteristics of Providencia. J Infect Dis., 129:353.
Peacock JE, Moorman DR, Wenzel RP. 1981. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Microbiologic characteristics, antimicrobial susceptibilities and assessment of virulence of an epidemic strain. J Infect Dis., 144:575.
Pond WG, Church DC, Pond KR, Schoknecht PA. 2005. Feedstuffs. In: Basic Animal Nutrition and Feeding. John Wiley & sons Inc.
Poole K. 2001. Multidrug Efflux Pumps and Antimicrobial Resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Related Organisms. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol., 3(2):255-264.
Raghunath D. 2008. Emerging antibiotic resistance in bacteria with special reference to India. J Biosci., 33:593–603.
Rasoloson D, Vanacova S, Tomkova E, Razga A, Hrdy A, Tachezy J and Kulda J. 2002. Mechanisms of in vitro development of resistance to metronidazole in Trichomonas vaginalis. Microbiology. 148:2467-2477.
Russell AD. 2002. Antibiotic and biocide resistance in bacteria: comments and conclusion. J Appl Microbiol., 92(Suppl):171-173.
Saravoltz LD, Markowitz N, Arking L. 1982. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Epidemiologic observations during a community acquired outbreak. Ann Intern Med., 96:11.
Sheehy RJ and Novick RP. 1975. Penicillinase plasmid replication in Staphylococcus aureus. In: Schlessinger D (ed). Microbiology. Washington DC: American Society of Microbiology. 130.
Suci PA, Mittelman MW, Yu FP and Geesey GG. 1994. Investigation of ciprofloxacin penetration into Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 38:2125-33.
Tomasz A. 1990. New and complex strategies of beta- lactam antibiotic resistance in pneumococci and staphylococci. In: Ayoub EM, Cassell, GH, Branche, WC Jr., Henry, TJ (eds). Microbial determinants of virulence and host response. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology.345.
Tresse O, Jouenne T, and Junter GA. 1995. The role of oxygen limitation in the resistance of agar-entrapped, sessile-like Escherichia coli to aminoglycoside and ß-lactam antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother. 36:521-26.
Varaiya A and Gogate A. 1998. Drug resistance to the 1st line of antitubercular regimen (A preliminary report). Ind J Pub Health. 42(4):126-130.
Warren JW. 1986. Providencia stuartii: A common cause of antibiotic resistant bacteremia in patients with long term indwelling catheters. Rev Infect Dis., 8:61.
Weinstein RA, Kabins SA, Nathan C. 1982. Gentamycin resistant staphylococci as hospital flora: Epidemiology and resistance plasmids. J Infect Dis., 145:374.
Willey JM, Sherwood LM and Woolverton CJ. 2007. Antimicrobial chemotherapy. In: Prescott, Harley and Klein’s Microbiology. 7th Ed. McGraw Hill Companies, Inc. New York. 850.
Published
2012-06-04
How to Cite
Sawhney, R. (2012). Drug resistance: a social perspective. Journal of Research in Biology, 2(4), 370-376. Retrieved from https://ojs.jresearchbiology.com/ojs1/index.php/jrb/article/view/226
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